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Mathomathis would like to present an article on: Yajnavalkya Smriti | Vyavahara Law. The following article is an continuation from the previous article Yajnavalkya Smriti | Vyavahara Law | 103. Readers are expected to complete the previous article, before proceeding here. Two Major Divisions of Law: In the post Smrti period, a large amount of commentaries on various Smrtis were produced. While commenting the older texts, the commentators used to incorporate regional customs and practices in their law books for extending and elaborating the existing laws. Accordingly a work written in a particular locality became the law of that locality. Thus several schools of law were emerged in different regions and they are broadly grouped into two divisions called Mitaksara system and Dayabhaga system. Mitaksara system had its development basing the Mts commentary of Vijnanesvara on the code of Yajnavalkya. Dayabhaga school takes its name after the work entitled Dayabhaga written by Jimutavahana, who might have flourished in the early part of the 12 century A.D. This text appears to be a chapter of a vast treatise on Dharmasastra composed by the author. But this chapter only is now extant. The Dayabhaga had been accepted as the supreme authority in Bengal in matters of Hindu law such as inheritance, partition and Stridhana. In all other parts of India the Mitaksara was accepted as paramount authority. These two schools of law fundamentally differ in two main particulars, namely the joint family system and the law of inheritance. The Mitaksara system was based on the principle that the property belongs jointly to the men of the family. The sons, grandsons and great grandson’s sons acquire right to the ancestral property by birth. This is called ‘Janmasvatvavada’ or the theory of ownership arising on birth. But in Dayabhaga school they can acquire it only after the death of the father. There is no right by birth. This is called ‘Uparamasvatvavada’ or the theory of ownership arising on death. In these two systems all the rules and regulations on partition and inheritance are governed by these two basic principles. The Commentaries on Mitaksara: As stated earlier, Mts was accepted as an authority in almost all parts of India, except in Bengal. Because of its widespread acceptance, numerous commentaries have been produced on this work. P. V. Kane has enlisted nine commentaries which are: Subodhini by Visvesvarabhatta Balambhatti by Balambhatta Pramitaksara or Pratitaksara by Nandapandita Mitaksarasara by Madhusudana Gosvami Siddhantasangraha by Radhamohansarma Vyakhyanadipika by Nirdurivasavopadhyaya and Other three commentaries, the names of which are not known, written by Halayudhabhatta, Mukundalal and Raghunatha Vajapeyi. Among them those of Visvesvarabhatta, Balambhatta and Nandapandita are more important. Subhodhini of Visvesvarabhatta: Visvesvarabhatta whose probable date can be considered as the later half of 14th century A.D. was a portage of Madanapala who belonged to the family of ‘Taka’ kings of ‘Kastha’, a city on the banks of Yamuna River to the north of Delhi. The author himself gives his whereabouts in the Subhodhini commentary and also in the introduction of his work called Madanaparijata. P.V. Kane points out that Visvesvara was a native of the Dravida country and in search of patronage he reached the court of Madanapala. It is believed that the four Dharmasastra works, Madanaparijata, Smrtimaharnava, Tithinirnayasara and Smrtikaumudi attributed to Madanapala, were actually composed by Visvesvarabhatta himself. Subodhini might have been written before his migration to North India. This is considered as the most celebrated commentary on Mts. Visvesvarabhatta does not comment each word of Mts, but gives only useful expositions of the difficult provisions of the text. This text with an English translation has been published by Sri. J.R. Gharpure in the Hindu Law text Series. Balambhatti by Balambhatta: Balambhatti, otherwise known as Laksmivyakhyana, on Mts is almost the latest work in ancient Indian law. The date of this commentary can be fixed as later half of the 18 cen. A.D. as a manuscript of the Acarakanda of this work is dated Samvat 1831 which corresponds to 1774-75 A.D. The authorship of the work is an enigmatic one. In the introductory verses of the commentary it is stated that it is written by Laksmi, wife of Vaidyanathapayagunda: But several references in the text make one suspect that it was written by Balakrishna, son of Vaidyanathapayagunda. After an elaborate discussion, P.V. Kane concludes thus: “Therefore it follows either that the Balambhatti was composed by Vaidyanatha himself and ascribed to his wife or that the work was composed by Balakrishna alias Balambhatta son of Vaidyanatha and was ascribed to his mother.” This voluminous work consisting of 10000 verses is the most elaborate commentary on Mts. Among the three portions, Prayascitta is very brief while the other two, Acara and Vyavahara are much exhaustive. The commentator has given more importance to the Acara section and so it gets the status of an independent work. This text is also edited by J.R. Gharpure and published in 1914. An English translation also is available. Pramitaksara or Pratitaksara by Nandapandita: Nandapandia, an esteemed exponent of the Mitaksara in the Banares sub-division, has written a commentary on Mts which is referred to as Pratitaksara in his Vaijayanti commentary on Visnudharmasutra:It seems that the author has not completed this work. Only fragments are found with his descendants. The author is a voluminous writer on Dharmashastra and has credited with the authorship of more than ten works in this field. His Dattakamimamsa is accepted as an authority on adoption throughout India. He lived between the later half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century. The Sub-schools of Mitaksara System: Due to the difference of various conditions in the society and the customary practice of different regions, the Mitaksara system itself was adopted with certain local variations in different parts of the country. As a result, this system came to be subdivided into four minor schools namely Benares School Mithila School Maharastra or Bombay School and Dravida or Madras School. The Benares school, covering a substantial portion of Northern India, […]
Vedic Roots | Classical Division | Mathomathis would like to present an article on Root By Kadambi Srinivasan | Published by | Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams | Tirupati 2019. The following article would focus on Vedic Roots – A Classical Division. Before proceeding with the following article, read the previous article Kalpa is the method of the ritual Srauta Sutra: Explains the rituals of sacrifices. Grihya Sutras: Rituals in domestic lives Dharma Sutras: Deals with Ethics, customs and laws. Pratishakyas, Padapathas, Kramapathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, Daivasamhitas, Parishistas, Proyogas, Paddhatis, Karikas and Vyuhas provide further elaborations in the rituals Sulba Sutras: Treats the measurements necessary for laying out Asavalayana, Sankhayana belong to Rig Veda, whereas Mashaka, Latyayana, Dharyayana, Gobhila, Khadidara belong to Sama Veda. Katyayana, Paraskara belong to Shukla Yajur Veda, Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhasana and Kathaka belong to Krishna Yajur Veda, Vaitana, Kaushika belong to the Atharvana Veda There are 18 main Smrithis or Dharma Shastras. The most important are of: Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parashara. The other 15 are: Vishnu Daksha Samvarta Vyasa Harita Satatapa Vasishta Yama Apastamba Gautama Devala Sankha-Likhita Usana Atri and Saunaka 1.Smrithis are secondary scriptures – next in importance to the Shruthis 2.Shruthi means what is heard. Smrithi means what is remembered. The former is a revelation and the later a tradition. The former is a direct experience by the great Rishis. The later a recollection of that experience. 3.Upanishad is Shruti. Bhagavad –Gita is a Smrithi 4.Smrithis or Dharma Shastras are written by sages. 5.Shruhi is considered as the final authority. If there is anything in the Smrithi that contradicts the Shruthi, then the Smrithi is rejected 6.Smrithis are the ancient sacred law codes of the Hindus. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis in the Vedas. Smrithis are based on the teachings of the Vedas. 7.Smrithis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide individuals and communities in their daily conduct and regulate their manners and customs. The Smrithis have given detailed instructions, according to the conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. The duties of Varnashrama and all ceremonies are clearly given in these books. The object of the Smrithis is to purify the heart of the man and lead him gradually to the supreme abode of immortality. 8.From time to time, a great law-giver would take his birth. He would codify the existing laws and remove those that have become obsolete. He would make alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions to suit the needs of the time and ensure the way of living of the people would be in accordance with the teachings of the Vedas. Of such law givers, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parashara are the most celebrated. We thus have Manu Smrithi, Yajnavalkya Smrithi, and Parashara Smrithi 9.The laws of Manu are intended for the Satya Yuaga. Those of the Yajnavalkya are for the Treta Yuga. Those by Sankha and Likhita are for the Dwapara Yuga. Those of Parashara are meant for the Kali Yuga. Same class as Itihasas. There are 18 Main Puranas – all written by Veda Vyasa. There are an equal number of Upa Puranas (Sub- Puranas). Srimad Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana are well known. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known as Devi Mahatmya. The divine Lilas of Lord Shiva are recorded in Tamil Puranas like Shiva Purana, Periya Purana, Shiva Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana. The language of the Vedas is difficult to grasp and assimilate. Puranas present philosophical truths and precious teachings in an easier manner for common people Main Puranas & (No. of Verses) Vishnu Purana (23,000) Naradiya Purana (25,000) Srimad Bhagavata Purana (18,000) Garuda Purana (19,000) Padma Purana (55,000) Varaha Purana (24,000) Brahma Purana (10,000) Brahmanda Purana (12,000) Brahma Vaivarta Purana (18,000) Markandeya Purana (9,000) Bhavishya Purana (14,500) Vamana Purana (10,000) Matsya Purana (14,000) Kurma Purana (17,000) Linga Purana (11,000) Shiva Purana (24,000) Skanda Purana (81,100) Agni Purana (15,400) Upa Puranas are: Sanatkumara Purana Narasimha Purana Brihannaradiya Purana Sivarahasya Purana Durvasa Purana Kapila Purana Vamana Purana Bhargava Purana Varuna Purana Kalika Purana Samba Purana Nandi Purana Surya Purana Parasara Purana Vasishtha Purana Deva-Bhagavata Purana Ganesha Purana Hamsa Purana The Agamas are theological treatises and practical manuals of Divine worship. They include Tantras, Mantras and Yantras. They explain external worship of God in Idols, temples etc. All the Agamas treat of (1) Jnana or knowledge (2) Yoga or concentration (3) Kriya or esoteric ritual (4) Charya or worship. They also give details on temple building, image making etc. The Agamas are divided into 3 sections – (a) Vaishnava (b) Shaiva (c ) Shakta. The Vaishnava or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Maha Vishnu. The Shaiva Agamas glorify God as Maha Shiva. The Shakta Agamas or Tantras glorify the God as the Mother of the Universe Devi .The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas but are not antagonistic to them. They are all Vedic in Spirit and Character. For this reason they are considered authoritative The points mentioned below are part of Shad-Darsanas 1. Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas are meant for the masses. Darsanas form the intellectual section of the Hindu writing. Darsanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas. They are meant for scholars having excellent powers of understanding, acute acumen, power of reasoning, subtle intellect and a very good understanding of the Vedas. 2. The philosophy has six divisions. Hence, it is called Shad Darsana – six different schools of thought. Each school has developed and systematized various parts of Vedas its own way. Each system has its own Sutrakara – a great Rishi who has systematized the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras. 3. The Sutras are short and terse. The Sutras, themselves, are very difficult to understand without the help from great teachers and Rishis. Thus, there arose a number of eminent commentators are Bhashyakaras, who in turn produced commentaries on the original commentaries. A Sutra or an […]
The following article is a continuation from the previous article Nada Sound in Vedic Science – Origin of Shapes and Figures | 102. Readers are expected to complete the previous article, before continuing further. Robert E. Wilkinson in his article – The Quantum Brahman explained about the Quantum Vacuum that clarifies some of the baffling issues of Science as – “The discovery of the Quantum Vacuum appears to represent a major paradigm shift for modern science but, at this point in time, very little is actually known about this puzzling phenomenon. Physicists cautiously agree that the Quantum Vacuum gave birth to the observable Universe; that it is the source and sink of all matter and, that it may prove to influence the space-time motion of matter. There is even a growing consensus among scientists that Vacuum Physics lay at the core of everything. But, in spite of all these advances, they are still faced with a monumental problem; the discovery of the Quantum Vacuum has not really solved anything, it merely postulated a zero point beyond which empirical science cannot go. They have finally arrived at the womb of creation, but it is exactly as the ancient sages predicted: immeasurable. The laws of physics break down at this resonant threshold because they are unable to measure its infinite density.” In his book, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, David Joseph Bohm wrote about Zero point order as – “The Zero Point Order which Bohm identified as the realm of insight-intelligence bears an unmistakable resemblance to the supreme spiritual realization of Indian metaphysics known as the Brahman, a perfectly inactive, pure noetic plenum realized as Absolute Being. The Brahman is characterized by a complete fusion of Time and Consciousness which is experienced as Timelessness, or undifferentiated Time. In this state Time-energy vibrates at such an intense rate that it appears static and thereby lacking any element of periodicity or denseness. Hence it cannot produce any form or any division of Consciousness-substance into distinct crystallized objects in Space.” He further said that – “In the language of physics the Brahman would be infinite creativity in a resting or seemingly non-vibratory state, realized as Emptiness or a Void. It appears this way because, as energy moves toward an infinite state, its wave frequency increases. The amplitude or vertical distance between wave crests becomes smaller and smaller until the points of rest overlap, turning the oscillating wave into a straight line. In this manner, infinite energy may be realized as utter stillness or a zero point, precisely as the sages have said. Bohm obtained laboratory evidence of this phenomenon by proving the existence of wave lengths as small as 10 -34. His calculations indicate that one cubic centimetre of this Zero Point energy contains more power than all of the matter in the known Universe.” According to Bohm the conception of Zero is an incalculable infinite. It is the supreme light either above or below our poor human visions limited range. “Bohm’s breakthroughs in quantum physics have opened the way for a new and productive relationship between ancient wisdom and modern science because, for the first time, they establish Fullness rather than a Void as the ground state of the Universe. The implications of this discovery are immense, not only because it offers science a new conceptual paradigm which may hold the key to grand unification but it lays the foundation for a new cosmology in which the polarities of Spirit and Matter may finally be joined in an integral synthesis harmonizing the various expressions of mind, life and matter.” The fifth field i.e. explained earlier is the Hiranyagarbha or Omkara that forms the basis of the emergence of the Universe. This is explained by Wilkinson as – “While these new theories hold exciting possibilities for science, they have been known and understood for millennia by the philosopher-sages of Vedic India. Long ago the Rishis postulated the existence of 5 fields with the 5th being the Etheric Plenum, or Fullness from which all things emerge. According to them, our material Universe arose from a point or seed which lies at the resonant threshold of that Etheric Plenum. The Atharvaveda describes that point or seed as an – “Embryo [Hiranyagarbha] which, in the beginning, poured forth upon the Universe a stream of gold.” This embryo or seed lies at the intersection of Time and Space, Spirit and Matter, where involutionary forms move across the event horizon and begin their linear evolution. In the language of scientific cosmology, this point or Seed is the singularity from which the universe exploded into being. In metaphysical terms it is the Luminiferous Ether, the Om or primordial vibration out of which the universe emerges and has its origin. All material creation issues from this original involved point or seed as involutionary forms move across the spatial threshold and begin to evolve linearly in accordance with the laws of causation and the principles of time.Once it crosses that resonant threshold the material universe is obliged to unfold in a manner that allows the Seer to follow the evolving in our Time measure of what was involved in that seed by compression or contraction.” The Risi, said Norelli-Bachelet, a Worlds leading authority on Vedic cosmology “Understood that the Universe is made up of an endless series of analogies, homologies, and symmetries. They also knew that there is a profound correspondence and equivalence between the Macrocosm and Microcosm; that a hidden order is contained in what appears to be the random cycles of a human life. If man could recover the awareness of his intrinsic identity with the Cosmos, vowed the Risi, he would then be able to perceive the hidden order of the world. Since this order was embedded in the structure and periodic movement of the Macrocosm, it was understood that a corresponding order could be discovered by the individual in the cycles and events of his own life. By aligning himself with the harmonies of Cosmic Time, he would […]
Mathomathis would like to continue on Upanishads and Quantum Philosophy Compared , 102. Readers can find the previous article by navigating to the link Upanishads and Quantum Philosophy Compared | 101 Chandogya Upanishad refers to the origin of world from akasha, the space-time continuum. Thus the Upanishad says: Where from do all these worlds come? They came from akasha and into akasha they return. akasha is indeed their beginning and akasha is the final end. Taittiriya Upanishad refers to akasha or space as the first evolute. The field of modern science can be compared to this akasha . The Upanishads speaks of apah, prana and akasha in decreasing order of subtlety. Here akasha is said to have come from prana. These three are active and things are produced from them and into them they return. This is the similar to the concept of the particles appearing from nowhere which again is the field. Thus apah, prana and akasha can together be compared to the field of the quantum thinkers. Manifestation of the world begins with its first step, the appearance of the space time continuum. Consciousness draws the picture of the manifested world in the canvas of space-time continuum. An object is only a pattern in the field of consciousness. The field is enveloped by space time, the first fictitious creation of the consciousness force. In the state of pralaya the space-time is engulfed into the Absolute consciousness. Thus says the lore of India: From atman-Brahman in the beginning came akahsa. From akasha came air, from air the fire, from fire the water. From water came solid earth. From earth came living plants. From plants food and seed; and from seed and food came a living being, man. This is akin to quantum inter-connectedness which Wheeler refers to as quantum foam. Thus writes John Gribbin: Quantum fluctuations in the geometry of space are completely negligible at the scale of atoms, or even elementary particles, but at this very fundamental level space itself can be thought of as a foam of quantum fluctuations – John Wheeler, who developed this idea, makes the comparison between an ocean that seems flat to an aviator flying high above it, but that seems anything but to the occupants of a lifeboat tossing about it on its stormy, ever-changing surface. Sir James Jeans, the British psychologist points to the relative nature of space and time which according to him do not have separate existence in nature. He opines, …nature knows as nothing of space and time separately, being concerned only with the four dimensional continuum in which space and time are inseparably welded together into the product we may designate as “space-time.” Our human spectacles divide this into space and time, and introduce a spurious differentiation between them; just as an astigmatic pair of spectacles divides the field of vision of a normal man into horizontal and vertical, and introduces a spurious differentiation between these directions. With astigmatic spectacles on, we incline our head and see the scene in front of us rearrange itself. Yet we know that nothing spectacles is subjective. Einstein’s world view which he formulated before his death is worth quoting. “Space has devoured ether and time; it seems to be on the point of swallowing up also the field and the corpuscles, so that it alone remains as the vehicle of reality”. Scientists studying space and field have ruled out the pluralistic picture of the universe since they accept the space or field as a single continuous entity which is the basis of the pluralistic manifestation of the world. The new generation quantum thinkers realized the role of space in the creation and dissolution of particles. Particles come from and vanish into space. Space, time, and motion (matter) are the three principles in the world of ordinary experience. Like space matter also has a relative appearance, both scientists as well as upanishadic seers opine. The study of the microscopic world by the quantum physicists has proved the bizarre nature of matter. Determinacy and causality upheld by the classical physics gave way to the theories of indeterminacy and complementarity. Objective reality became an illusion or something subjective. The behavior of an atom or sub-atomic particle was found to be ghost-like. Marcus Chown’s humorous illustration of the ‘red Ferrari’ cited earlier in this work brings out the process of tunneling by particles. Being a wave and a particle, an atom is said to be present everywhere and would materialize when the consciousness desires to observe it. The ‘double slit experiment’ of Young is an excellent demonstration of uncertainty and tunneling of particles. The waves are in superposition. This is no theoretical fantasy. Experiments describe it possible to observe the presence of an atom at two places simultaneously just like a fairy tale character appearing simultaneously at many places. But this was not a matter of fancy to the ancient Seers according to whom ‘it’ moves, ‘it’ moves not, ‘it’ is far, ‘it’ is near, ‘it’ is within all this, and ‘it’ is outside of all this. (Isho upanishad). Individual consciousness is identical with the Universal or Absolute consciousness. The ultimate consciousness in its becoming decohered binds itself with ignorance or illusion and chooses for it one out of the innumerable possibilities. It thus becomes a part of the world of imperfection and limitation and forgets the unity it is the part of. While scientists call this collapse of consciousness, a Seer like Sri. Aurobindo calls it the involution of consciousness. Universal Consciousness is thus everywhere, become any thing with its bizarre nature. Aitareya Upanishad describes atman as got entangled in all cosmic phenomena. (He) whereby one sees, or whereby one hears, or whereby one smells odours, or whereby one articulates speech, or whereby one discriminates the sweet and the unsweet; that which is heart(hrdaya) and mind (manas) – that is consciousness (samjnana) perception (ajnana), discrimination (vijnana), intelligence (prajnana), wisdom (medha), insight (drishti), steadfastness (dhrti), thought (mati), thoughtfulness (manisha), impulse (juti), memory (smriti), conception (samkalpa), purpose […]
Mathomathis would like to present article on Indian Astronomy | Astronomical Dating of Events | 103 by the author Kosla Vepa Published by Indic Studies Foundation, 948 Happy Valley Rd., Pleasanton, Ca 94566, USA. Previous article can be found here (Indian Astronomy | Astronomical Dating of Events | 108 (Vikrama Samvat | Saptarsi Tradition)) Their website can be located Indicstudies.us. The studies is also conducted by N.S. Rajaram PhD. Author’s in the volume 1 of their research start their discussion on a topic called Why are History and the Chronology Important by Kosla Vepa PhD. The Western historians have tried to identify Kanishka era with 78 CE in their attempt to deny historicity of the Salivahana saka. Professor Sengupta had considered astronomical information from two kharosthi inscriptions which refer to regnal years of Kanishka , but could not match with the 78 CE date and so he proposed his own date for the starting of the Kanishka era. The inscriptions in question are no.26 and no. 35 in the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. II. edited by Sten Konow. According to the inscriptions, in the eleventh year of reign of king Kanishka, on the 20th day of Asadha, it was uttaraphalguni naksatra. In the year 61, on the 8th day of caitra, the naksatra was purvasadha. Know had concluded that the full moon day was the first day of the month in these inscriptions. Sengupta correctly pointed out that there is no such Indian system in which the first day of the month is the full moon day. The months are full moon ending months and the 20th day of Asadha of the inscription would correspond to sravana sukla panchami and 8th day of caitra would correspond to caitra krsna astami. With these calendrical data, when Sengupta tried to calculate the dates based on the 78 CE as the beginning of Kanishka era, he could not quite match the data from the inscriptions. So he proposed that the Kanishka era be started from December 25 of 79 CE, nearly two years after the Salivahana saka. But, based on the list from Rajataragini, Kanishka’s date would be 1298 BCE. The eleventh and sixty-first years would be 1287 BCE and 1237 BCE respectively. Figure A shows the star map for June 23, 1287 BCE, it is sravana sukla pancami uttaraphalguni, an exact match to the inscription. Figure B shows the star map for March 1, 1237 BCE, caitra krsna astami, also an exact match to inscription no. This clearly establishes the consistency of the record in rajatarangini with the kharosthi inscriptions and hence the miss-identification of Kanishka era by the Western historians. Author Concludes as following: The real history of Bharata is preserved in its itihasa and purana texts. The Chronology is comprehensive and cogent. Simulations of the astronomical data preserved in these texts, using modern planetarium software, have attested the coherence of the chronology. From the date of the Mahabharata war, the sarpa yaga of Janamejaya, the date of Buddha, Asoka Maurya, Kanishka, Adi Sankara, the Gupta period, through the Vikrama and Salivahana sakas, the chronology exhibits a continuous flow which has been convincingly demonstrated by the simulations using planetarium software. The consistency is staggering. Many of the sticky points with ‘traditional chronology’ of the historians is simply resolved with these stimulations. There is still a large body of inscriptional data awaiting validation by simulations using the planetarium software.