Category Posts
Mathomathis will discuss about, one of the interesting topic from Sushruta Samhita, called : “Fracture Management in Traditional Indian Medicine”, by the authors Dr. Hemant D. Toshikhane, M.S.(Ayu) and Dr. H.J. Sangeeta, M.D. (Ayu). In traditional Ayurveda practice, the fracture of bones and their treatment was first mentioned in SUSHRUTA SAMHITA – chikitsa sthana from the view of surgical management. Among the different types of fractures, ancient Indian surgeons gave importance to the fractures of thigh, spines, shafts of long bones, and the pelvic region. The principles laid down by Sushruta are so relevant that they are even practiced by toady’s orthopedic surgeons. Those four basic principles are: Among the management of fractures is the Kushabandha (wooden splint) which is practiced as an application of POP cast or slab (or squint bandage, as are used at present). In same way, the chakrayoga that is explained in Astanga Hridaya is in vogue in the form of the traction method. Here a comparison of ancient techniques is made with the modified techniques practiced in the present era. In traditional Indian medicine there is a explanation of about 6 types of dislocations, and 12 types of fractures. The types of dislocations are: Utpista – Fracture dislocation; Vislista – Dislocations of joints due to ligamental tears; Vivartita – Anterior-posterior dislocation of the head of the humerus; Avakshipta – Downward displacement of the head of the humerus; Atikshipta – Marked displacement of any articulation surface; Tiryakshipta – Oblique dislocation in one of the articulating bones. The types of Fractures are: Karkataka – Depressed fracture. Ashwakarana – Complete oblique fracture. Churnitam – Comminuted fracture Pichhitam – Fracture by compression. Asthichallita – Sub periosteal avulsion. Kandabhagna- Complete spiral fracture. Majjanugatam- Impacted fracture. Atipatitam – Complete compound fracture. Vakra – Green stick fracture. Chinnam – Incomplete fracture. Patitam – Comminuted fracture flat bones. Sputita – Fissured fracture. Traditional Indian medicine has mentioned different medicines, formulations, rejuvenators, and dietary restrictions for the rapid and complete healing of fractures. The few orthopaedic techniques are mentioned below: KUSHA BANDHANA (Application of P.O.P.cast or splint) : Kusha bandhana is a technique that ancient Indian surgeons practiced for fracture immobilization. In this technique they have applied the barks certain plants like bamboo, banyan, and pipal which were referenced regarding external applications of pastes of bamboo pith, latex of banyan, and pipal like trees. This procedure was practiced based on the season, time, constitution, and strength, of an individual. While manipulating the broken bones, Unnamana (elevation of depressed fragment) and Vinamana (Depression of elevated fragment) were followed by traction and retention. In the winter season, the bandage should be changed once per week. In the rainy season, the bandage is to be changed once per five days. In the summer, the bandage has to be changed once per three days. The bandage should be in the form of SAMABANDHA (neither too tight nor too loose). ASTHIPOORANA (Bone Grafting): As per the classic version, in compound fractures, multiple fractures, and irregular fractures where the fractured part is totally separated or missed in those conditions, one has to fill the missing part by Sudha varga dravyas (materials possessing mineral calcium). The paste prepared from the combination of Sudhavarga dravya, decoction of Rubia cordifolia, and latex of the banyan tree was used as a graft material. After the filing up the area, medicated oils are applied for proper acceptance and healing of the bone. CHAKRAYOGA (Skeletal Traction): In long bone fractures, the fractures of the shaft, hairline fractures, oblique fractures, and in compound open fractures, there is the reference of using of Chakrayoga. As per the reference, in dislocation of joints, skin traction was practiced. KAPATASHAYANA (Fracture Bed) VIDHI: This method of immobilization is used in the fracture or dislocation of the thigh, hips, ankle, shoulder, spine, spinal column, bones of thorax, and axillary regions. In this method, the patient was laid on a multi holed bed where the affected part is immobilized using five wooden pegs. The method of preparing and fixing of an artificial limb is also mentioned in the ancient traditional medicine of India. These are used in practice by changing the type of and quality of a material in a sophisticated manner. In ancient days artificial limbs were prepared with bark of bamboo, by the mixture of wax, mud, thin bamboo bark, and grass. In modern times, however, artificial limbs are prepared with solid and smooth woods like teak, rosewood, and with adhesive cement. In ancient days deformities like scoliosis or kyphosis in spinal column, a jacket or a belt that is made up of leather material was used to fix the problem. In the modern era the same type and structured belt is also used but it is made up of leather-chromium-ion jacket. Now, let us focus on, yet another topic of | The medical treatments of fractures and dislocations. (The following article is available more under https://www.wisdomlib.org/) A fracture or dislocation (Bhagna) occurring in a person of a Vatika temperament, or of intemperate habits, or in one who is sparing in his diet, or is affected with such supervening disorders (as fever, tympanites, suppression of the stool and urine, etc.) is hard to cure. A fracture-patient must forego the use of salt, acid, pungent and alkaline substances and must live a life of strictest continence, avoid exposure to the sun and forego physical exercises and parchifying (devoid of oleaginous) articles of food. A diet consisting of boiled rice, meat-soup, milk, clarified butter, soup of Satina pulse and all other nutritive and constructive food and drink, should be discriminately given to a fracture-patient. The barks of Udumbara, Madhuka, Ashvattka, Palasha, Kakubha, Bamboo, Vata or Sala trees should be used as splints (Kusha). Manjishtha, Madhuka, red sandal wood and Sali- rice mixed with Shata-Dhauta clarified butter (i.e., clarified butter washed one hundred times in succession) should be used for plastering the fracture. Bandage:— Fractures should be (dressed and) bandaged once a week in cold weather, on every fifth day in temperate weather (i.e., […]
Mathomathis would like to present an article on Sushruta Samhita | Medical treatment of inflamed ulcers based on the book Sushruta Samhita, volume 4: Cikitsasthana by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna | 1911 | 123,229 words. The article is a continuation from the previous article which was on: Sushruta Samhita | Fracture Treatment In Vedas – Ancient IndiaReaders are expected to complete reading the previous article, before proceeding further. Also, the article was adopted from the website: https://www.wisdomlib.org/, a detailed explanation is available on the website. Ulcers may be grouped under two heads according as they are Idiopathic or Traumatic in their origin. The first group includes within its boundary all ulcers that are caused through the vitiated condition of the blood or the several deranged conditions of the Vayu, Pitta and Kapha, or are due to their concerted action (Sannipata), while the second group embraces those which are caused by the bites of men, beasts, birds, ferocious animals, reptiles or lizards, or by a fall, pressure and blow, or by fire, alkali, poison, or irritant drugs, or through injuries inflicted by pointed wood, skeletal bones, horns, discus, arrows, axes, tridents, or Kuntas (a kind of shovel), or such other weapons. Although both these classes of ulcers possess many features in common, they have been grouped under two distinct heads on account of the diversity of their origin, the difference in remedial measures to be adopted in their treatment, and the variation in their strength and tenacity. Hence the chapter is called Dvivraniya. In all cases of traumatic ulcers, cooling measures should be at once resorted to, just after (the fall or blow or stroke), for the cooling of the expanding (radiating) heat of the incidenta ulcer, in the manner laid down in respect of (the pacification of enraged) Pitta, and a compound of honey and clarified butter should be applied on the wounded locality for the adhesion (Sandhana) of the lacerated parts, [and for the pacification, i.e, restoration to normal state, of the local blood and Vayu aggravated through an obstruction of their passage]. Hence arises the necessity of making the two-fold classification of ulcers. After that (a week) a traumatic ulcer should be treated as an idiopathic one (to all intents and purposes), inasmuch as it is found to be associated with deranged Vayu, Pitta or Kapha Hence at that stage the medical treatment of both the forms of ulcer is (practically) the same. In short, ulcers are further subdivided (particularly) into fifteen groups, according to the presence of the morbific diathesis (deranged Vayu, Pitta Kapha and blood therein). Several authorities, by adding the simple uncomplicated ulcers (unassociated with any of the morbific principles of the deranged Vayu, Pitta, etc.) to the list, hold the number of types to be sixteen. (Practically they are innumerable, according to the combinations made of the deranged Vayu, etc. and the different Dhatus of the system). Symptoms of ulcer may be divided into two kinds viz., General and Specific. Pain is the general characteristic (of all forms of ulcer), while the symptoms, which are exhibited in each case according to the virtue of the deranged Vayu, Pitta, etc., involved therein, are called the Specific ones. A Vrana is so named from its etymology (the term being derived from the root Vrana—to break) and signifies a cracked or broken condition of the skin and flesh of the afflicted part) of the body. The Vataja-Ulcer: The ulcer assumes a brown or vermilion color and exudes a thin, slimy and cold secretion, largely attended with tension, throbbing and a sort of pricking and piercing pain (in its inside), which seems as if being expanded and extended. This type of ulcer does not extend much and is characterized by a complete destruction of the tissue (flesh). The Pittaja ulcer is rapid in its growth. It assumes a bluish yellow color, exudes a hot secretion resembling the washings of Kimshuka flowers, and is attended with burning, suppuration and redness, being surrounded with eruptions of small yellow-colored pustules. The Kaphaja ulcer is found to be extended and raised around its margin and is accompanied by an irresistible itching sensation. It is thick and compact (in its depth), covered with a large number of vessels and membranous tissues (Shira-snayu-jala), grey in color, slightly painful, hard and heavy, and exudes a thick, cold, white and slimy secretion. The Raktaja ulcer (resulting from a vitiated condition of the blood) looks like a lump of red coral. It is often found to be surrounded by black vesicles and pustules and to smell like a strong alkali. It becomes painful and produces a sensation, as if fumes were escaping out (of it). Bleeding (is present) and the specific symptoms of the Pittaja type are likewise found to supervene. The Vata-Pittaja Type An ulcer due to the concerted action of the deranged Vayu and Pitta is marked by a pricking and burning pain and a red or vermilion color. A sensation of fumes arising out of it (is also felt) and the ulcer exudes a secretion which partakes of the characteristic colors of both the deranged Vayu and Pitta. An itching and piercing pain is felt in the ulcer due to the combined action of the deranged Vayu and Kapha (Kapha-Vataja type), which becomes heavy and indurated, constantly discharging a cold, slimy secretion. An ulcer resulting from the deranged condition of the Pitta and Kapha (Kapha-Pittaja type) becomes heavy, hot and yellow. It is marked by a burning sensation and exudes a pale, yellow-coloured secretion. An ulcer marked by the aggravated condition of the deranged Vayu and blood (Vata-Raktaja type) is dry and thin and is largely attended with a piercing pain and anesthesia. It exudes blood or a vermil-coloured secretion and is marked by the combined hues respectively peculiar to the deranged Vayu and blood. An ulcer due to the combined action of the deranged Pitta and blood (Kakta-Pittaja type) is marked by a color which resembles the surface cream of clarified butter. […]
Mathomathis would like to present an article written by T.L.Subash Chandira Bose on “Who am I”. Note that, there are many articles that would be circulating on the similar discussion, henceforth mathomathis would not like to generate any conclusion by comparing articles that are written by various research scholars across the globe. Mathomathis would just like to present an article written by author T.L.Subash Chandira Bose to our readers. Readers are indeed free to comment or ask questions on the same. At certain stage each and every human being asked a question in the past, asking now and will ask in future i.e., who am I? and search for the correct answers. The answers are given in a form of symbol (Sogam) on Indus seals. The symbol Sogam reveals an interesting Vedantham philosophy. According Thamizh dictionary; Sogam means all the souls (life) and Supreme soul is one and the same and Vedantham means Upanishad and end of knowledge. According to swami Vivekananda the Upanishads are attributed to 5000 years before. The whole of the Vedaantha philosophy is in a story of two birds living on a same tree. Swami Vivekananda describes the Vedantha as a story in his translation work on Mundaka Upanishad pages 38-41; 2006, Published by Advaida Ashrama, Kolkata-700 014 Upon the same tree there are two birds, one on the top, the other below. The bird on the top is calm, silent and majestic, immersed in his own glory; the bird on the lower branches, eating sweet and bitter fruits by turn, hopping from branch to branch, is becoming happy and miserable by turns. After a time the lower bird eats an exceptionally bitter fruit and gets disgusted and looks up and see the other bird, that wondrous one of golden plumage, who eats neither sweet nor bitter fruits, who is neither happy nor miserable, but calm and who sees nothing beyond his self. The lower bird longs for this condition, thinking, “How I would love to be like him!” and hops a little way towards him. Soon he forgets all about his desire to be like the upper bird and begins to eat the fruits. After little while he eats another exceptionally bitter fruit, which makes him feel miserable, and he again looks up and tried to get nearer to the upper bird. Once more he forgets and after a time he looks up and so on he goes again and again, until he comes very near to the beautiful bird. He sees the reflection on light from upper bird’s plumage playing around his own body. He feels a change and seems to melt away. Still nearer he comes and everything about him melts away and at last he understands this wonderful change. The lower bird was, as it were, only the substantial looking shadow, the reflection of the higher; he himself was in essence the upper bird all the time. This eating of fruits, sweet and bitter, this lower, little bird, weeping and happy by turns, was a vain Chimera, a dream: all along, the real bird was there above, calm and silent, glorious and majestic, beyond grief, beyond sorrow. The upper bird is God, the Lord of universe; and the lower bird is human soul (mind and Pranan), eating the sweet and bitter fruits of this world. The human soul knows that it is weak and small and tells all sorts of lies. It says it is a woman or it is a man. It says it will do good or do bad; it will go to heaven and will do a hundred sorts of things. In delirium it talks and works, and the central idea of its delirium is that it is weak. Thus it suffers because it thinks it is nobody. It is a created little being. It is a slave. It is governed by some god or gods, and so is unhappy. Now and then comes heavy blow to the soul. For a time, it stops the eating and goes towards unknown God, and a flood of light comes. It thinks that this world is a vain show. But again senses drag it down, and it begins as before to eat the sweet and bitter fruits of the world. Again an exceptionally hard blow comes. Its heart becomes open again to divine light. Thus gradually it approaches God, and as it gets nearer and nearer, it finds its old self melting away. It finds that its individuality – it’s low, vulgar, intensely, selfish individuality –is melting away. When it has comes near enough, it sees that it is no other than God, and it exclaims, “Why, it has my own glory that I called God, and this little ‘I’, this misery, was all hallucination, it never existed. I was never a woman, never a man, never any of these things.”Then the soul gives up all sorrow. The lower bird was but the reflection of the one above. So we are in reality one with God, but the reflection makes us seem many, as when the one sun reflects in a million dew-drops and seems a million tiny suns. The reflection must vanish if we are to identify ourselves with our real nature which is divine. The universe itself can never be the limit of our satisfaction. That is why the robber robs, the sinner sins that are why you are learning philosophy. All have one purpose. There is no other purpose in life, save to reach this freedom. Consciously or unconsciously we are all striving for perfection. Every being must attain it. That which is in every atom, everywhere present, the essence of all things, the God of this universe-know that thou art He, know that thou art free. This is what Vedaantham teaches. It tells us that we are essentially divine. It shows us the real unity of beings, and that each one of us is God Himself manifested on earth. All of us, from the lowest worm that […]
Mathomathis would like to present an article on: A genuine approach on Ancient Indian Science by author Prof. K.D.Abhyankar, F.N.A,F.A.Sc, F.N.A.Sc,A.R.A.S | Fellow , Indian National Science Academy (INSA), Hyderabad There are two opposite views about ancient Indian science. According to one conservative Indian view all knowledge is contained in the Vedas and one has to discover it by proper decoding of its contents. On the other hand western oriented people say that Indians were ignorant of science before they came into contact with the foreigners. Both these views are extreme and wrong. Knowledge grows exponentially with time like a nyagrodha i.e. banyan tree. The father learns something by experience. He transmits his knowledge to his son. The son in turn adds to it his mew experience and conveys it to the grandson, and so on. The present day knowledge is the result of such accumulation over thousands of generations. So it is not correct to say that every thing was known in the beginning itself. But surely there was an earlier simpler beginning and it should be our aim to discover the seed of nyagrodha tree of knowledge, which was sown in ancient times. The ancient knowledge need not be as complex as modern one. Same thing applies to technology. It would certainly take a long time to graduate from a potter’s wheel to an aeroplane. Hence one need not claim that the ancients were familiar with radio, television, air travel, theory of relativity and atom bombs. Of course they were intelligent enough like us to speculate about such things. In astronomy also we have to remember that there were no telescopes at that time. So there was no knowledge about galaxies and the expansion of the universe. However the ancients made good use of their eyes and simple devices like shanku (gnomon) and ghatikapatra (water clock) for discovering some basic facts about the heavens. And we endeavor to search them. Sense of History:- Secondly one has to have a proper historical perspective about Indian history. Here also there are two extreme views. According to one school Aryans, who spoke Sanskrit and produced the Vedic literature, came into India from outside around 1500 BC. So they would compress Vedic knowledge within this period. On the other hand traditionalists will vouch for several mahayugas of Indian history. Let us first look at the Aryan influx theory. It is based on two premises. One is the close affinity between Sanskrit and European languages. The other id the existence of 500 years old Indus valley civilization which is said to have been destroyed by the incoming Aryans, who were nomads. So Vedic knowledge cannot to be older then 1500 BC. However Malti Shndge of Pune has shown that there is a closer affinity of Sanskrit with the Sumerian and Akkadian languages of Mesopotamia. So it is more likely that these and European languages are offshoots of Sanskrit which is definitely Indian origin. Further Vedas do not talk about an earlier home of Aryans like Arianavayo of Parsis. In fact they praise the mighty Saraswati river of India with fondness and reverence. In older times saraswati was joined by yamuna in the east and Satadru (satlaj) in the west. Due to technonic movements of the earth they were diverted to Ganga and Sindhu, respectively and saraswati dried around 200 BC. Satellite photographs clearly show the dry bed of saraswati river in Rajastan. So Vedic people were living in India before that time and the so called Indus valley civilization. Most archeological sites of that civilization are found near the banks of old Saraswati. Now how far back can we go in time. It is now known that before 1000 BC the earth was passing through an ice age for a long time. Large parts of the earth were covered with the thick ice and people had to live in caves. The ice melted around 1000 BC and it was possible for men to inhabit land in river basins and take up agriculture. So one cannot go beyond 1000 BC. Our study of Vedic calendar takes us back to 7000 BC. Evolution of Vedic calendar:- Our present calendar i.e. Panchanga, is developed during the Siddhantic period of Indian astronomy starting from the beginning of Saka/Samvat eras. It is advanced by many famous astronomers from Arybhatta of 5th century to Samant Chandarashekhar of 20th century. Siddhantic astronomy makes use of the Greek methods of deferent’s and epicycles for computing the position of the sun, moon and taragrahas. So it is claimed that Indians borrowed all astronomical knowledge from them. It is even asserted that Vedanga Jyotish was borrowed from the Babylonians, although it is quite clear that Vedanga Jyotish belongs to 1400 BC while Babylonian astronomy thrived in 5th century BC. They forget that the concepts of tithis and nakshatras, which form an important element in our panchangas, were clearly defined in Vedangas Jyotish and represent the link between Siddhantic and earlier Vedic astronomy. As Siddhantic astronomy has already been studied extensively by many scholars we have concentrated on the study of Vedic astronomy with our genuine approach outlined here. India has a hoary astronomical tradition, but it is difficult to trace its development from the earliest epoch due to the lack of any systematic historical records. So one has to interpret the stray astronomical references in the Vedic literature, which covers a long period of time (700 BC to 500 BC) by logical reasoning. From times immemorial the sun, moon and stars have served as directional guides to travelers on land and sea, and now even to astronauts in space. They have also helped him in the measurement of time. When man learned civilization and settled down on land he found that the groups of stars known as Nakshatras (asterisms), which are seen before sunrise or after sunset and near the full moon, changed during the course of the year. It was discovered that the seasons of spring, summer, rains etc were closely […]
Mathomathis would like to present the article on the Vaimanika Shastras – Vimana Shastras by Maharshi Bharadwaaja Propounded by Venerable SUBBARAYA SHASTRY Translated into English and Edited, Printed and Published by G.R. JOSYER SCHOLAR, HISTORIAN, ESSAYIST, SANSKRITIST Printed at CORONATION PRESS, MYSORE-4, INDIA. The following article would be presented on Types of Vimanas, i.e. different type of flying vehicles or aircrafts or aeroplanes depicted in the Vimana Shastra’s. Before proceeding further on the following article, its advised to complete the previous article on: Types Of Vimanas | Atha Jaatyadhikaranam – Shakuna Vimana | 101 Maharshi Bharadwaaja Sutra 6: “Sundarothha.” | “Next Sundara.” Bodhaananda Vritti: It has got 8 constituent parts. First peetha or ground plate, smoke chimney, 5 gas-engines, bhujya metal pipe, wind blower, electricity generator, and four-faced heater, and vimana nirnaya, or outer cover. The Peetha or ground plate: It should be made of Raajaloha metal only. It should be square or round, and of 100 feet in circumference, or any other desired size. It should be 8 feet thick. Seven times the peetha has to be heated with manchuka or madder root oil. Then spots should be marked in it at 10 feet distance from each other, totaling 24. The size of each kendra or centre is 15 feet. In the center a dhooma-prasaarana or fume distributing naala or pipe 12 feet high should be erected. Naalastambha, hollow mast: The naalastambha should be 56 feet high, and 4 feet in diameter. For storing gas, at its base, a 8 feet long, circular, and 4 feet high vessel should be provided. A six feet size water vessel should be arranged. A 4 feet size oil tank should be fixed at its center. At its foot an electric storing crystal of 1 foot size should be fixed with necessary hinges and keys. The vessel should be filled with 12 parts of dhoomanjana oil, and 20 parts of shukatundika or bignonia Indica? (egg-plant?) oil, and 9 parts of kulakee or red-arsenic oil. To conduct electricity, two wires should be passed through the pipe and fixed to the crystal. In the middle of the naalastambha or mast, for the smoke fumes to be restrained or speeded out, triple wheels with holes should be fixed. In order to work the wheels from outside, two right turning and left turning wheels should be attached outside the pole, and connected to the wheels inside. Three wires should be drawn inside the naala and fixed at the foot, the middle, and at the top. Dhoomodgama Yantra: Because it ejects smoke fumes with speed it is called Dhoomodgama yantra. Hima samvardhaka, soma, and sundaala, in the proportion of 32, 25, and 38, should be filled in pipe crucible, placed in chakra-mukha furnace, and with the help of ajaamukha bellows heated to 712 degrees and properly churned. It will yield excellent dhooma-garbha alloy. With that alloy the dhoomodgama yantra should be constructed. Underneath the centre of the 15 feet long peetha, for the control of the gas fumes a 10 feet high pipe with right revolving wheel should be fixed. On its 2 sides, to south and north, 2 water steam pipes should be erected. At the foot of the 2 pipes 4 feet long 3 feet high pots should be formed for containing the fumes. Two pipes shaped like goblets, 1 foot by 8 feet by 3 feet, should be fixed at the top of the fume container. A water vessel at its foot, and an oil-vessel at its center, and in front of it the switches of the electric ray crystals, as in the dhooma prasaarana naala stambha. On either side of the heat tube, two water jackets should be placed. A pipe with wires should be taken from the electric generator and connected to the hinges of the crystals. Electric current of 80 linkas should be passed to the crystals, whose motion will cause friction and generate heat of 100 degrees (kakshyas). Thereby the oil in the vessel will get heated and boil and emit fumes. The electric power should then be passed through the smoke pipe between the two water jackets. By this the water will be converted into hot steam. The oil fumes should be filled in the oil fume pipe and the steam in the steam pipe. Then by operating the switches, both the fumes will fly up at 500 degree temperature. The switches should restrain the fumes or pump them out as needed. 40 such yantras should be prepared and should be fixed on the peetha in groups on the four sides. Then connected with the bases of the dhooma-naalas, sundaalas or elephant trunks, one foot wide and 12 feet high should be erected on the four sides, to enable the vimana to fly with speed. Sundaala is described by Lallachaarya: The sundaala should be installed. for using the oil fumes and steam fumes for the motion of the vimana. There are. varieties of ksheera vrikshaas or milk-trees according to shaastraas. Vata or banyans, manjoosha or madder root, maatanga or citron?, panchashaakhee (five branched), shikhaavalee (crested), taamra sheershnee (copper crested), brihatkumbhee (big bellied), mahishee, ksheeravallaree, shona parnee (crimson-leaved), vajramukhee, and ksheerinee (milky). From these the ooze or milk should be collected, and in the proportion of 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 8, 7, 4, 7, 30, 12, filled in a vessel. Then granthi metal, naaga or lead, vajra, bambhaarika, vynateya, kanduru, kudapa, and kundalotpala, these in equal parts should be filled in the vessel in equal proportion to the milk contents, and boiled with 92 degree heat. Then the molten liquid should be filled in the milk-cloth machine, and churned. When cooled and put through the levelling machine, it will yield a strong, soft, cool, heat proof, and uncuttable ash-coloured cloth sheet. This cloth should be boiled in rouhinee taila or oil of black hellebore for 3 yaamaas or 9 hours, and then washed with water. Then it should be boiled in atasee or linseed oil as before. Then it […]